The Oral Torah and Its Authority
Orthodoxy holds that Moshe received both a Written and an Oral Torah at Sinai. The doctrine is the foundation of Halacha.
Summary. Orthodox Judaism teaches that Moshe Rabbeinu received two Torahs at Sinai — the Written (the Tanakh) and the Oral (the mesorah that develops into the Mishnah, Talmud, and Halacha). The Oral Torah is what allows the Written to be applied; the Written presupposes the Oral and is incomprehensible without it. The Sadducees and the Karaites rejected the Oral Torah; the Pharisaic mainstream that became Rabbinic Judaism (and from it all contemporary Judaism) affirmed it. Conservative Judaism affirms the Oral Torah’s authority with some allowance for development; Reform treats it as historical-cultural inheritance.
The Torah’s text frequently presupposes information not in the text itself. “You shall slaughter…as I have commanded you” (Devarim 12:21) — but the Torah does not actually contain instructions for kosher slaughter; the rules of shechita are entirely in the Oral Torah. “Bind them as a sign upon your hand” (Devarim 6:8) — but the Torah does not describe what tefillin look like or how to put them on. The text’s gestures point to a fuller transmission that traveled alongside it.
The Talmud (Pirkei Avot 1:1) frames the chain of transmission: “Moshe received the Torah at Sinai and transmitted it to Yehoshua; Yehoshua to the Elders; the Elders to the Prophets; and the Prophets transmitted it to the Men of the Great Assembly.” The Men of the Great Assembly transmitted it to the Tannaim (the Mishnaic sages); the Tannaim to the Amoraim (the Talmudic sages); the Amoraim to the Geonim; and onward through the Rishonim and Acharonim to today.
The rejection of the Oral Torah is a recurring motif of Jewish heterodox movements. The Sadducees (Second Temple period) accepted only the Written Torah; the Pharisees affirmed the Oral. The Pharisaic position became normative; the Sadducees disappeared with the Temple. In the 8th–9th centuries, the Karaites in Babylonia and Egypt repeated the Sadducean move, rejecting the Talmud and constructing their own readings of the Tanakh; the Geonim (especially Saadia Gaon) defended the Oral Torah. Small Karaite communities survive today in Israel and the diaspora.
Modern scholarship (Wellhausen, Finkelstein, Berman, and others) has approached the question of the dating and authorship of the Written Torah from various angles. The Orthodox position — that the Written Torah was given at Sinai in its entirety — is held alongside the Modern Orthodox engagement with academic Bible scholarship by figures like Rabbi Joshua Berman (Ani Maamin: Biblical Criticism, Historical Truth, and the Thirteen Principles of Faith). Conservative and Reform are more accepting of the documentary hypothesis and other critical approaches.
Where Denominations Diverge
Orthodox: Written and Oral Torah both given at Sinai, both binding. Conservative: Oral Torah is authoritative tradition, with allowance for halachic development (the CJLS framework). Reform: Tanakh is a foundational text with no claim to verbal divinity; the Oral Torah is the historical inheritance of the Jewish people. Reconstructionist: similar to Reform but with strong emphasis on Jewish civilization. Karaites (a small surviving non-Rabbinic stream): accept only the Written Torah.
Sources
Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 1:1 — the chain of transmission.
Talmud Bavli, Berachot 5a; Megillah 19b.
Rambam, Mishneh Torah, Hakdamah (Introduction).
Saadia Gaon, Emunot V’Deot.
Further Reading
Joshua Berman, Ani Maamin: Biblical Criticism, Historical Truth, and the Thirteen Principles of Faith.
Marc B. Shapiro, The Limits of Orthodox Theology.
Adin Steinsaltz, The Essential Talmud.